EDU510: Blog 1

How Mental Representations & Mindful Practices Reinforce Learning

Understanding the effective use of cognitive science can support the learning and development of students in meaningful ways. This article explores some key ideas around the study of cognitive science in the world of learning.

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Cognitive science is the scientific and emotional study of how the mind processes and transforms information (Penn State, n.d.). Think of it as threading together theoretical and philosophical ideas. Cognitive scientists have curated many theories and findings “from fields such as psychology, artificial intelligence, philosophy, neuroscience, linguistics, and anthropology” in a quest to learn about mental faculties, such as “perception, language, memory, attention, reasoning, and emotion” (Penn State, n.d., para. 1) as it relates to thinking and learning.

In other words, we have processes and procedures in our minds that we can tap into to help us remember, make sense of complex ideas, create relationships between old and new information, and much more.

In the world of learning, understanding and knowing how to apply cognitive science can help with many key learning challenges, a few of which are:

• Recognizing previously learned information to apply it to new learning situations

• Creating enthusiasm and evoking curiosity in passive learners

• Incorporating creative thinking and problem-solving skills in “stuck” learners

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MENTAL REPRESENTATIONS

Mental representations are mental “symbols” that exist in our minds but are not tangible in the outside world. They are “theoretical construct[s] to explain ongoing information processing in the brain” (Strasser, n.d., para. 1). Mental representations determine how we perceive things or decide on ideas, thoughts, and experiences.

These cognitive techniques enable us to form mental schemas, which is a process that allows us to organize our knowledge into categories and learn and think more quickly (Vinney, 2019). Schemas, developed by developmental psychologist Jean Piaget, are components of knowledge culled together from different experiences that tell us how to react to incoming stimuli or information (McLeod, 2022).

Five mental representations work together to bolster and reinforce learning:

• Concepts

• Images

• Analogies

• Rules

• Logic

CONCEPTS

Concepts are generalized ideas or building blocks of thoughts that offer a more significant abstract idea or mental symbol. They organize complex information and ideas to make them simpler and easier to understand. For example, the concept of a straight A student is more straightforward to imagine than the explicit dozens of assignments, tests, late-night studying, note-taking, nail-biting, etc., that it took to get there. Concepts make our mental efforts less stressful because they lighten the load on our memory and improve our ability to communicate well with others (New World Encyclopedia, n.d.).

Concepts can also shape and direct our behavior. Imagine a young girl in a family of athletic brothers. She may cultivate a mental concept that only males are good at sports. This can affect her self-esteem and prevent her from doing her best in gym class.

Learn more: 3 Major Influencers of Cognitive Science and Their Key Contributions

IMAGES

It’s been said that a picture tells a thousand words, and it’s true. Images and other visuals “play an important role in human thinking” (Thagard, 2018, para. 22). Imagery greatly aids learning and helps with imagination and perception.

A teacher using a Smart Board to demonstrate a lesson or show a video offers an excellent example of using imagery to boost cognitive comprehension. Because when images are used, it creates an immersive learning experience, generating more “stickiness” for information to encode in the student’s mind.

Mental images can also be self-created in a purposeful, self-actualized way to benefit skill or learning, as exampled by Michael Phelps, an American swimmer and the most decorated Olympics male athlete of all time (Venkat, 2021). Phelps mentally rehearsed every swim stroke and movement repeatedly, daily, for months. When he struggled near the finish line during one race, he turned to his mental images and won the Olympic medal.

ANALOGIES

Analogies allow you to understand information and ideas using relational patterns or shared commonalities. They have been used in poetry, literature, religion, science, and philosophy to express abstract ideas as far back as centuries ago. Analogies also assist cognitive processes such as memory, attention, perception, and problem-solving (Holyoak et al., 2001, pp. 1-19).

According to Vendetti et al. (2015), the key to using analogies in learning is paying attention to relevant information to identify where it can be applied in a new learning episode. For example, Microsoft Office applications use many of the same attributes. Therefore, when teaching someone already familiar with Word or Excel to use PowerPoint, the analogy of the similarities could be called out: “The toolbar in PowerPoint is the same or similar as the toolbars in Word and Excel.” Remember, an analogy is a similarity in the relations of ideas.

RULES

Conceptual rules help decide “whether objects or events belong to a concept class” (New World Encyclopedia, n.d., para. 15). One mental procedure present in this representation is the if/then process. Imagine if an elementary science class was growing a plant as a learning project, it would likely measure its growth and healthiness. Here, the cognitive process of if/then would be demonstrated. For example: "If I water the plant once a day, it will die; if I water it once a week, it will live."

LOGIC

Logic offers cognitive science a “proper or reasonable way of thinking about something” (Merriam-Webster, n.d.). It provides the act of sound thinking with a set of rules and processes to follow, such as critical thinking, which gives hypotheses and definitions validity. An example of logic is concluding that if a student fails to show up for a test without notice, they will fail the exam.

CREATE BRAIN-COMPATIBLE LEARNING EXPERIENCES

SCAFFOLDING

South African theologist Desmond Tutu famously said, “There is only one way to eat an elephant: a bite at a time." He meant that taking a daunting project and breaking it into segments makes it manageable Similarly, an instructional scaffolding approach systematically builds on students’ knowledge and experiences incrementally as they move along.

For example, I counsel my work colleagues in desktop technology, and my approach to teaching a skill or technique is the same. There are different methods of understanding involved, and I use the scaffolding approach to gauge how ready the employee is for learning the subsequent technique. In other words, I begin with the easiest one first.

GAME-BASED LEARNING & GAMIFICATION

According to Findlay (2022), game-based learning (GBL) allows learners to practice their skills while playing a game, so the game IS the training. Think of Kahoot, a game-based learning platform that creates learning games and trivia quizzes. On the other hand, gamification encourages desired behavior but is not offered in a game context. Instead, it uses tactics like competitive leaderboards, incentives, and rewards.

GBL is an instructional strategy that increases student engagement and motivation because it’s fun, and this helps keep learners interested and on task longer. It also helps with memory retention, builds self-confidence, and improves focus and problem/decision skills. GBL is ideal for teachers and learning designers because it easily incorporates mental constructs such as images, analogies, searching, if/then procedures, and other computations.

FAILING IS PART OF THE LEARNING

Maybe you heard the Japanese proverb, "Fall down seven times, get up eight." Failing is part of learning because, with each new try, you improve your skills and understanding. Making things harder and offering productive struggle can be a good thing. Think of video gamers who advance skill levels over time.

However, because teachers know that everyone’s brain is different, they often try to protect their students from frustration by making the struggle easier. But to truly ensure that learning material is mastered, teachers must allow students to wrestle through the content to resolve their cognitive conflict. One approach is to balance challenge and ability. In other words, if a challenge is too low and the ability too high, the brain becomes bored. Likewise, stress occurs if there is too much challenge with little ability (Forney ISD, 2016).

The adventure of education is not the same for everyone. Many circumstances can affect and shape a learning experience, such as learning styles, culture, language, emotions, self-esteem, and quality of resources, to name a few. Therefore, teachers need to allow opportunities for students to practice and encounter mistakes.

SELF-REFLECTION & PLAY

Taking time for contemplation and curiosity helps students translate new content and concepts into long-term memory. Self-reflection can also look like asking learners to practice, discover, and play with new knowledge. During practice and play, mental muscle is built through failure, creating reinforcement, and having fun.

Mary Helen Immordino-Yang, Associate Professor of Education and Neuroscience at the University of Southern California’s Rossier School of Education explains how reflection can help students connect what they are learning in the classroom with their future goals and the world around them.

Remember, conceptual learning isn't just ideas that stay inside your head – "active" learning should occur through experiential activities and practiced behaviors. If education is passive, there is little chance for new content to be encoded into a learner's long-term memory (Forney ISD, 2016). Learning should occur by doing, when possible.

Lastly, to make learning “stick,” it should be relevant, meaningful, and enjoyable.

As a teacher, ask yourself: "Will this objective take students through a meaningful and relevant experience?" Meaning and purposefulness are essential elements in cognitive science. Take me, for example. While the writing of this blog is a self-reflective collegiate assignment to demonstrate my learning, the exercise of organizing my thoughts also reinforced my understanding of the material.

PERSONAL REFLECTION

Over the past three weeks, my favorite new learnings have been the importance of scaffolding, self-reflection, practice and failing, and the five mental representations (Concepts, Images, Analogies, Logic, Rules). I can see how understanding mental constructs (schemas) and mental procedures (computations) and how they are best used in learning is critical across the board – as a teacher, instructional designer, and learner. It has also been helpful to know that not all mental representations are applicable for each learning experience because I initially struggled to make Rules and Logic fit into every learning scenario.

In my role overseeing the execution of employee annual compliance training in a corporate environment, I work with L&D each year to revisit several course outlines for the upcoming year to identify any changes we want to make. I now know the benefits of incorporating elements of self-reflection and game-based learning/gamification into learning experiences, and I want to find ways to include these in our future training courses.

Therefore, my study and understanding of cognitive science will help my future trajectory in two ways. I will aim to build on these techniques and theories in my corporate training work. I also feel more prepared to support my future students, as I aspire to teach a postsecondary communication curriculum following my M.Ed. degree.

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References

D. Gentner, K.J., Holyoak, B.N., and Kokinov, B. (Eds.). The analogical mind: Perspectives from cognitive science. (pp 1-19). MIT Press

Findlay, J. (2022, May 23). Game-Based Learning vs. Gamification: Do You Know the Difference? Training Industry. https://trainingindustry.com/articles/learning-technologies/game-based-learning-vs-gamification-do-you-know-the-difference/#:~:text=Game%2Dbased%20learning%20is%20training,objectives%20and%20makes%20it%20fun.&text=Gamification%20is%20the%20application%20of,behavior%20and%20drive%20learning%20outcomes

Forney ISD. (2016, October 24). How We Learn [Video]. YouTube. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=wlaG99awCD8

McLeod, S. (2022, April 6). Piaget's Stages of Cognitive Development. Simply Psychology. https://www.simplypsychology.org/piaget.html

Merriam-Webster. (n.d.). Definition of logic. https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/logic

New World Encyclopedia. (n.d.). Concept formation. https://www.newworldencyclopedia.org/entry/Concept_formation

Penn State. (n.d.). Cognitive Science & Artificial Intelligence – Information, People, and Technology. The Pennsylvania State University – Open Resource Publishing. https://psu.pb.unizin.org/ist110/chapter/5-3-emotional-design/

Strasser, A. (n.d.). Mental Representations. SpringerLink. https://link.springer.com/referenceworkentry/10.1007/978-1-4419-1428-6_1884

Thagard, P. (2018). Cognitive Science. Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy. https://plato.stanford.edu/archives/spr2019/entries/cognitive-science

Vendetti, M. S., Matlen, B. J., Richland, L. E., & Bunge, S. A. (2015, June 1). Analogical reasoning in the classroom: Insights from cognitive science. eScholarship. https://escholarship.org/content/qt5019j24r/qt5019j24r.pdf

Venkat, R. (2021, August 26). All-time Olympic records: Know all the best performances. Olympics. https://olympics.com/en/featured-news/olympics-records-most-medals-michael-phelps-youngest-medallists

Vinney, C. (2019, July 21). What Is a Schema in Psychology? ThoughtCo. https://www.thoughtco.com/schema-definition-4691768

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